Political Order and Political Decay - Book Summary

Unlock the secrets to why democracy is teetering on the edge

The dawn of the 90s witnessed a significant collapse of authoritarian communist regimes in Europe's Eastern bloc, signaling the end of the Cold War. Western democracies seemed to be holding the victory flag, suggesting that perhaps democracy had triumphed indefinitely. In the midst of this, Francis Fukuyama famously marked the era as "the end of history," causing both the phrase and Fukuyama himself to skyrocket to fame.

But did history really come to a halt? And has democracy flourished uninterruptedly since the downfall of communism?

Today, we'll delve into the complexities of global democracies, with a keen focus on the United States. By examining the sinking ship that is American democracy, you'll gain valuable insights into what the future holds for democratic societies, and what institutions are critical for its survival. This is particularly essential in a time when populism is on the rise, to safeguard the future of democracy.

Throughout this summary, you'll discover:

The influence of Washington's 12,000 registered lobbying firms on democracy,

Why a dwindling middle class spells trouble, and

How the plight of the US Forest Service epitomizes the decay of American institutions.

Understanding democracy: The heart of American politics

The term "democracy" frequently bubbles up in political dialogues, philosophical contentions, and cultural critiques. Since it's a central theme here, it's crucial we first understand its implications.

In a nutshell, democracy represents a government "of the people, by the people". The US Constitution, drafted in 1789, embraced democratic ideals of equality and unbiased representation in a groundbreaking manner.

Regrettably, the principles embedded in the Constitution were largely overlooked during the early years of the country, leading to a frail and inherently corrupt political system. This extended well into the nineteenth century where political alliances were bartered with goods and services, predictably favoring the affluent and powerful.

However, an upheaval was on the horizon. Late in the nineteenth century, the American federal government began a profound transformation that eventually turned it into an independent, effective, and principle-driven political entity by the mid-twentieth century.

This metamorphosis was sparked off by the Progressive movement, steered by leaders like Theodore Roosevelt, who dismantled giant business empires. This progress was further propelled by the New Deal politics, extending healthcare and a basic pension to US citizens.

Moreover, industrialization dramatically reshaped traditional social hierarchies, becoming a catalyst for extensive social modifications. A multitude of freshly empowered political players, including African-Americans and suffragettes, began to challenge and disrupt the entrenched and corrupt system.

By 1989, it appeared as if democracy had gained the upper hand. In Fukuyama's acclaimed text, "The End of History", he proposed that the downfall of Communism signified the victory of democracy, and its worldwide expansion was an unavoidable trajectory for the future.

Indeed, the tally of global democracies soared from a mere 35 in 1970 to nearly 120 by 2010, accounting for about 60 percent of the world's nations. However, as democracy proliferated, it also confronted a multitude of trials — and this holds true even for democracy in the United States. But before we delve deeper into these complexities, let's first explore the mechanics of a well-functioning democracy.

The indispensable role of a robust middle class in a resilient democracy

Since Aristotle's era, scholars have strongly advocated that the presence of a middle class is integral to the welfare of nations and democracies. But defining the middle class can be rather complex.

In the sphere of political science, the middle class is identified by indicators of social status and educational attainment. To paint a clearer picture, envision a disadvantaged individual with limited social status and education who secures a higher-paying job.

A political scientist would view this as a leap into the middle class. However, if this individual loses the job, he plummets back into poverty. His primary focus then turns to daily survival, leaving him with scarce room to muster a political uprising against his regression into poverty.

On the other hand, imagine a middle-class university graduate unable to find employment, eventually sliding down the social ladder. Unlike the previous scenario, this individual is likely to actively engage in political protest against their descent into poverty.

Now, contemplate a situation where the middle class expands significantly, overshadowing other social strata. You'll see an influx of voices ready to protest at the slightest mishap. This global surge in the middle class was instrumental in the proliferation of democracy.

International studies substantiate that middle-class citizens place higher value on democracy and individual freedoms and exhibit greater tolerance towards diverse lifestyles compared to those from lower social classes.

Research by American economist William Easterly supports a correlation between a sizable middle class and improved rates of economic growth, education, health, and civil stability. Such positive outcomes are attributed to typical middle-class traits such as self-discipline, work ethic, and emphasis on long-term saving and investment.

In the nineteenth century, nations like Denmark and France owe their democratic transitions to their middle classes. Likewise, the influence of the middle class propelled countries like Sweden, Germany, Britain, and many others towards full democratization by the early twentieth century. Undeniably, the middle class forms the foundational pillar of democracy in the Western world.

The struggle of America's middle class: Shrinking wages and declining job prospects

In the United States, the financial landscape underwent a significant transformation between 1970 and 2007. Within this span, the top one percent of affluent households saw their share of the nation's Gross Domestic Product rocket from nine percent to 23.5 percent. This implies a disturbing trend for the middle class.

Despite appearances, middle-class incomes have been silently dwindling since the 1970s. The influx of women into the job market during this period led to a rise in average household incomes, obscuring the fact that individual paychecks were thinning.

Further clouding this income stagnation was the substitute use of inexpensive, subsidized credit in lieu of income redistribution. This strategy appealed to politicians and led to a government-backed housing boom. However, the bubble burst with the financial crisis of 2008.

Ironically, another challenge to the middle class stems from technology — a factor that previously uplifted them in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Historically, ground-breaking technological advancements generated a plethora of jobs for low-skilled laborers in industries such as coal, steel, chemical manufacturing, and construction. Even with just a fifth-grade education, individuals could secure stable positions on assembly lines like those in Henry Ford's factories, where the car-building process was simplified into manageable, repetitious steps.

While these technological advancements fueled the growth of the middle class and consequently democracy, contemporary technology has had a contrasting effect. Automation innovations have wiped out vast quantities of low-skilled but well-paying jobs. Simultaneously, higher-paying jobs are emerging, favoring workers with specialized skills.

Rewind to the nineteenth century, and mathematical prodigies had limited opportunities to capitalize on their talents. Fast-forward to today, and these individuals are earning hefty portions of national wealth in roles such as software engineers, bankers, or geneticists.

The impact of lobbyists' wealth on government policy, leaving the public feeling unheard

Ever heard the term "repatrimonialization"? It denotes the supremacy of affluent and influential individuals who manipulate democratic institutions to serve their interests, leaving the wider population in the lurch. Repatrimonialization is a significant blight on American democracy and governance. So, how does it materialize in real-life scenarios?

One way repatrimonialization manifests itself is through lobbying — a sanctioned process of exchanging wealth for political power. While political corruption through outright bribery is illegal, exchanging gifts is permissible. The underlying notion is that recipients of gifts are morally inclined to reciprocate, leading to an indirect form of bribery. This system forms the backbone of the entire American lobbying industry — and it is by no means a small-scale operation.

The presence and influence of lobbyists and interest groups have seen a massive expansion in Washington, DC. The registered lobbying firms shot up from a mere 175 in 1971 to 2,500 in 1981. By 2013, this figure swelled to an astonishing 12,000 firms, collectively spending over $3.2 billion on lobbying. These firms disrupt American public policy across various sectors, with taxation being a critical arena.

While the stated corporate tax rates in the United States stand higher than most developed countries, what American corporations ultimately pay is significantly less. How is that possible? The answer lies in the special exemptions and benefits they've secured for themselves through diligent lobbying.

As lobbying continues its upward trajectory, the escalating repatrimonialization triggers a representation crisis. The influence wielded by lobbyists and other shrewd activists leaves the general public feeling overlooked and silenced.

Take, for example, the National Rifle Association (NRA), one of the most powerful lobbies in Washington, advocating for gun rights. Despite its profound influence over politicians and policy, this dominance comes at a substantial cost to the safety and interests of the ordinary citizen.

The rise and subsequent decline of the US Forest Service: An illustration of political institutions' vulnerabilities

To understand how political institutions can degenerate into corruption, let's trace the trajectory of a specific American government organization — the US Forest Service.

Established in 1905, the US Forest Service (USFS) was a paragon of American state formation during the Progressive Era spanning the 1890s to 1920s. Staffed by university-educated foresters and agronomists selected on the basis of technical prowess and merit — a marked contrast to the majority of public offices at the time, which were typically granted through patronage or personal favoritism — the USFS personified the finest ideals of American democracy in its meritocratic structure and autonomy.

Today, however, the USFS is notorious for its bureaucratic dysfunction. The question is, where did it take a wrong turn? The downturn commenced with a clash of public expectations. Originally tasked with the sustainable utilization of American forests, the USFS gradually assumed the responsibility of forest fire containment.

This shift triggered a significant dilemma. On one hand, property owners living near these forests began pressing the agency to safeguard their real-estate assets from potential fire damage. On the other hand, environmentalists called for a "let burn" approach, based on emerging research that suggested forest fires were integral to ecosystem maintenance.

These opposing factions leveraged their access to Congress and the judiciary to push their interests. Over time, the lean, unified agency evolved into a sprawling, unwieldy entity, buckling under the pressure exerted by conflicting groups angling it to serve their individual ends.

Subsequently, USFS bureaucrats diverted their focus from protecting forests to preserving their jobs and enhancing their budgets by acceding to the demands of these groups. This trajectory, symbolic of the decline evident across American government agencies on a grand scale, underlines the susceptibility of political institutions to corruption and deviation from their original mission.

The inherent difficulty of institutions adapting to change: A major factor in the political decay of the United States

What lessons can we learn from the US Forest Service's narrative about government institutions? Essentially, the resilience of these entities greatly hinges on their adaptability to change.

Resistance to change is a defining feature of institutions, and often, this trait is their strength. Political scientist Samuel Huntington described the "consistent, treasured, repetitive behavioral patterns" within institutions that enable them to foster collective action among humans.

Without firmly established rules, members would constantly be at odds, redefining behavioural norms. This process is not only time-consuming, but it invariably brews discord. As a workaround, individuals accept institutional constraints to tap into their inherent stability.

Institutions have played a key role in promoting a level of social cooperation among humans unmatched by any other animal species. Everything from education systems encompassing public schools and universities to transportation and energy infrastructures that connect us — our most basic human necessities are fulfilled by institutions.

However, institutions also have the potential to obstruct societal progress, primarily when they fail to adjust to new realities.

Political decay is often traced back to the institutional inability to effectively adjust to swiftly changing environments, particularly when fresh social groups with novel political demands emerge, challenging existing norms.

Yet, political decay can both precede and be a crucial catalyst for political evolution. The reason is simple: the old order must crumble to make way for the new. However, if entrenched institutions stubbornly resist change or are inept at assimilating diverse viewpoints, they stifle the emergence of novel institutions.

This issue is but one of many plaguing the heart of contemporary American politics. There are no quick-fix solutions for these problems. However, the key to navigating these challenges lies in deepening our understanding of the intricate power dynamics, a principle that holds true not just for American politics, but for global political scenarios as well.

Wrapping up the narrative

The fundamental takeaway from this book:

Though democracy forms the bedrock of American politics, the ideals it espouses aren't exempt from challenges. These range from the dwindling middle class, a representation crisis fueled by rampant lobbying, to the failure of institutions to adjust to evolving situations. These are just a handful of the myriad issues that American democracy must confront in the contemporary world.