Sea Power - Book Summary

Step into a world colored by the blue expanses of the sea, where water and power dance a complex ballet.

Standing on the shore, looking out into the vast blue of the ocean, it's not difficult to be overwhelmed by the sheer magnitude and might of nature. But did you know that these waters, these teeming and swirling seas, have also been instrumental in shaping human history and the political landscape across the globe?

In this exploration, you'll learn to navigate the wide-ranging expanses of the seven seas, and you'll experience how the nature of these waters — both welcoming and tempestuous — has weaved narratives of nations, from the age of courageous explorers who dared to push the boundaries of the known world, to our current times of geopolitical uncertainties and looming maritime disputes.

Expect to uncover:

The extensive parts of the Pacific Ocean charted by the renowned Captain Cook in the late eighteenth century;

How the thawing Arctic permafrost is revealing new and strategic naval routes; and

The critical and pressing issues of overfishing and industrial waste disposal that are threatening our seas and demand immediate attention.

Embark on a journey through time: How audacious explorers and shrewd dealings unravelled the mysteries of the Pacific Ocean.

The vastness of the Pacific Ocean is unrivaled. The mind boggles when one learns that its impressive expanse of 64 million square miles eclipses the collective area of all the earth's landmasses. Such is the sheer scale of the Pacific.

Our knowledge of this colossal ocean started unfurling only in the 1500s when fearless explorers embarked upon treacherous voyages to pierce the veil of the unknown that hung over the American west coast and beyond.

Portuguese trailblazer Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to venture into the far-flung Pacific islands of Guam, the Philippines, and Cebu. A misstep into local politics in Cebu, however, led to his untimely death at the hands of the natives.

But the most well-regarded mariner of the Pacific was Captain James Cook of the British Royal Navy. In the waning years of the 1700s, he undertook daring voyages that mapped out hitherto uncharted areas, unveiling critical ports in locales such as Hawaii, Tahiti, Western Canada, Easter Island, and parts of New Zealand.

The mid-nineteenth-century gold rush piqued America's interest in the Pacific. As gold-seeking settlers moved westward in droves, the advent of coal-powered ships necessitated the establishment of coaling stations for long-distance Pacific voyages. Hawaii was annexed by the US in 1898 to serve this purpose, and it continues to be a strategic link in the US Pacific operations to this day.

Another acquisition made under dubious circumstances was Alaska, bought by the US from Russia in 1867. Orchestrated by Secretary of State William Seward, this deal, for a chilly expanse in the North Pacific, was initially ridiculed as a frivolous expenditure on a barren, frozen wasteland, mockingly referred to as “Seward’s Folly.” However, as history unfolded, Alaska would prove its critics wrong by becoming an integral part of the US economy.

From World War II to a rising arms race: The Pacific Ocean as a hub of global conflict and tension.

The surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in the waning days of 1941 seared itself into the collective American consciousness. This unexpected and calamitous onslaught on a US military base turned World War II from a distant rumble into an immediate reality for the United States.

For years, the US found itself locked in a relentless battle against Japanese forces across the vast waters of the Pacific. The enormity of this marine battlefield was as if conflict was spread from the English Channel all the way to the Persian Gulf.

However, a closer examination of Japanese military history reveals that such surprise assaults were a time-honored tactic. Half a century before Pearl Harbor, Japan had launched a covert attack on a Chinese convoy, sparking months of hostilities, and eventually leading to Japan reasserting its dominion over Korea and other Pacific islands.

When Russia challenged Japan's territorial ambitions in 1904, it ignited the Russo-Japanese War. Russia emerged bruised, losing both its Baltic and Pacific fleets, and Port Arthur — a strategic gateway to the Pacific in Northeast Asia.

Yet, these skirmishes paled in comparison to the epic and unyielding clashes that took place across the Pacific Theater during World War II. It was a hard-won and excruciating campaign that saw US forces reclaim island after island from the entrenched Japanese defenders.

Even after the dust of World War II had settled, the US maintained its presence in the Pacific, intervening in the Korean and Vietnam wars to uphold its geopolitical interests.

However, the Pacific region faces a growing threat today. Numerous nations are accelerating their arms procurement, nudging the region closer to the brink of war. Between 2013 and 2015, China inflated its military expenditure by 26 percent, while North Korea doubled its budget. During this same period, defense budgets of the US and the European Union have seen a decline!

Given the strained tensions and the high stakes, it would be imprudent for the United States to reduce its defense budget while the specter of war looms ominously large over the Pacific.

Pioneers of the Atlantic: The fearless journeys of the Vikings and the ambitious explorations of the Portuguese.

Measuring a staggering 40 million square miles, the Atlantic Ocean ranks second in size only to its Pacific counterpart. The Atlantic envelops 20 percent of the earth's surface area, a figure that excludes its two major auxiliary seas — the Caribbean and the Mediterranean.

Although the Greeks may have been the first to venture into the enigmatic expanse of the Atlantic, historical records herald the Vikings as the inaugural European explorers to cross this formidable body of water and glimpse the new world.

In the period between 800 and 1000 AD, Viking exploration was at its zenith. At the turn of the tenth century, Bjarni Herjolfsson, a Viking explorer, was blown off course by a violent storm. This unintentional detour led him to sight unfamiliar landmasses, effectively marking the start of transatlantic exploration.

On the other hand, the Portuguese navigators of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries approached their voyages with an intent that set them apart from the Vikings. Unlike the Vikings, who were primarily explorers, the Portuguese were seen as discoverers, armed with an agenda to expand their territories and establish colonies.

Indeed, aided by state-of-the-art multi-masted ships, proficient sailors, and superior astronomical navigation techniques, they set about achieving their colonial ambitions.

The Portuguese also pioneered the use of lightweight vessels that harnessed the power of wind and water currents, enabling swift maritime routes from Lisbon to the north-west African coast.

Among the early Portuguese navigators, Infante Henrique, famously known as Prince Henry the Navigator, stands out. He unveiled the riches — spices and gold — that were hidden away in northern Africa.

His successors, Vasco de Gama, Bartolomeu Dias, and Pedro Álvares Cabral, continued in his wake. In the initial years of the sixteenth century, Cabral embarked on a monumental voyage that irrevocably linked Europe with South America, the Indian Ocean, and Asia.

Their explorations marked the onset of the Oceanic age and paved the way for global trade routes. However, these newfound routes also set the stage for the heartbreaking exploitation and enslavement of African people.

Unrivaled on the high seas: The legacy of Great Britain's naval dominance in the Atlantic.

In the 1500s, England emerged as a formidable maritime power under the reign of King Henry VIII. He mandated the construction of heavily armed warships, bolstering England's naval prowess just in time to challenge Spain's hold on Europe.

In the years following King Henry VIII's rule, the British and Spanish navies waged fierce battles in the Atlantic. Britain, armed with skilled seafarers and fleet-footed ships, consistently emerged victorious.

The 17th century saw the Dutch challenge Britain's supremacy on the high seas, with France following suit in the 1700s. Nevertheless, the Royal Navy triumphed over these adversaries, securing critical territorial gains like Canada and several Caribbean islands.

However, the American Revolution of the 1770s delivered one of the few significant blows to the British naval might. The Americans, lacking a competitive naval force, enlisted the support of the French to thwart the British. In a pivotal encounter near Yorktown in 1781, the French outmaneuvered the British at sea, paving the way for American independence.

Despite this setback, the British had more pressing concerns to address. In the early 1800s, the British Navy resolutely thwarted Napoleon Bonaparte's ambitions, with his inability to overcome the British naval force contributing significantly to his eventual downfall.

The British also reclaimed their naval supremacy over the United States during the War of 1812. This confrontation ended in a peace treaty and forged a "special relationship" between the two powers, a bond tested during the ensuing wars of the 20th century.

During World War II, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill deemed the conflict against German U-boats in the Atlantic as "the dominating factor" of the war. Both land and air campaigns hinged on defeating these U-boats and ensuring safe maritime transport of supplies and troops.

The British, armed with advanced sonar systems, lethal depth charges, and a team of exceptional codebreakers, triumphed over the German U-boats. This marked yet another victory for the indomitable Royal Navy.

The Indian Ocean: A storied trade route turned resource hotbed.

Dating back to ancient Greece, the Indian Ocean has been a bustling hub for trade. Spices, textiles, livestock, and a myriad of other commodities found their way across its waters. Arabs, Persians, and Chinese utilized this maritime route for peaceful commerce for centuries.

In the late 1400s, the Portuguese seized control of the Indian Ocean trade routes. However, their reign was short-lived as they were soon overtaken in the 1600s by the fierce competition between the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company.

These two colossal entities eventually amalgamated, and by the 1800s, the Indian Ocean had effectively become a "British lake." This era also saw the establishment of the Suez Canal as a British "protectorate." Nestled in Egypt, this canal served as a crucial maritime link between the North Atlantic and Indian Oceans, connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea.

The 19th century saw the advent of the steam engine, a time when Britain had strategically secured key territories such as Egypt, India, Iraq, Kuwait, Kenya, Sudan, and Singapore.

When World War II erupted, the British held steadfast in their belief that Singapore could repel any invasion. However, from 1942 to 1945, Singapore fell under Japanese control. During this time, the Axis Powers — Germany and Japan — gained access to the Indian Ocean, effectively ending the British hold that had lasted over two centuries.

The late 1960s marked the beginning of Britain's strategic withdrawal from the Indian Ocean. Simultaneously, the region was found to harbor an abundance of natural resources, particularly in the Arabian Gulf.

Historically, locations like Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, and Dubai were known as modest fishing villages. However, by the mid-20th century, these humble settlements had been unveiled as sites harboring up to two-thirds of the world's oil reserves and a third of its natural gas. This revelation drastically altered the status of these locations on the global stage.

The simmering tensions of the Indian Ocean: The US should tread with diplomatic caution.

The Indian Ocean region houses a myriad of simmering tensions, some stemming from religious divides. The area is home to more than 90 percent of the world's Muslim population. However, this population is split between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims — and in places like Iraq, both factions coexist.

This Sunni-Shi’a divide is a major trigger point, often precipitating tension that could escalate into open conflict at any moment.

Since the late 1960s — coinciding with Britain's withdrawal from the region — cultural, religious, and geographical disputes between India and Pakistan have been a constant cause of concern. Both these nations wield nuclear weapons, and so far, the prospects of a peaceful resolution have seemed elusive. The region of Kashmir, claimed by both countries, has remained a consistent bone of contention.

The relationship between India and China also radiates hostility. As China continues to expand its influence across the Indian Ocean, predictions suggest that India will eventually surpass China as the world's most populous country. This dynamic could exacerbate existing rivalries.

The strategic importance of the Indian Ocean is undeniable. Half of the world's shipping traffic navigates through these waters — a statistic that some argue elevates the Indian Ocean's significance above that of the Atlantic or the Pacific. This underlines the critical role of the United States in maintaining stability and fostering smooth operations in the region. Any action undertaken by the United States to ease tensions and promote diplomacy can have a beneficial impact.

It would be prudent for the United States to recognize and endorse India's potential as a global leader. As a democratic nation, India shares many values with the United States. Hence, efforts to strengthen this relationship could be mutually beneficial for both nations.

The Mediterranean: The crucible of naval strategy and the once-mighty Ottoman stronghold.

While the Mediterranean may look like a modestly-sized body of water on the global map, in reality, it spans a distance comparable to the width of the entire United States.

The Mediterranean stretches from the Atlantic, passing through the narrow Strait of Gibraltar that bisects Spain and Morocco. It features distinct geographical elements — the boot-like shape of Italy stretching down into its heart, and the Greek peninsula punctuating its eastern expanse.

It's this unique topography that has made the Mediterranean the birthplace of maritime strategy.

The outcroppings of land and islands such as Crete and Sicily made the Mediterranean an ideal theater for the earliest large-scale maritime conflicts. This is where the likes of the Roman, Persian, and Carthaginian empires crafted strategic war plans and waged epic battles.

The Holy Roman Empire utilized the Mediterranean as a stepping stone for crusaders venturing out to establish kingdoms across the Middle East.

The Ottoman Empire entered the scene in the fourteenth century.

The Ottoman Turks seemed invincible for several centuries following their arrival. However, by the latter half of the sixteenth century, Pope Pius V, resolute in his mission to vanquish the Turks, poured all his resources into the Battle of Lepanto.

On October 7, 1571, off the western coast of Greece, the Pope's Holy League assembled 200 ships to face off against 250 Ottoman vessels. It was the largest naval battle in 16 centuries. The Pope had deployed massive three-masted ships known as galleasses, which compelled the Turks into evasive maneuvers, making them vulnerable to intense cannon fire.

The defeat at Lepanto highlighted the Ottomans' weaknesses, leading to their gradual decline over the subsequent 200 years. The Napoleonic Wars of the eighteenth century, followed by the two World Wars of the twentieth century, ultimately ushered in a period of relative peace in the Mediterranean.

Threats loom over Mediterranean tranquility: Russia and ISIS stir the waters.

The Black Sea, nestled northeast of the Mediterranean, has become a breeding ground for aggressive actions.

Post-World War II, the area enjoyed a period of relative peace. However, the tranquility began to shatter in the 1990s with the onset of the Balkan Wars, provoked by the disintegration of Yugoslavia.

The horrific fighting that ensued, involving Bosnian Muslims, Orthodox Serbs, and Catholic Croatians, might have reached an end, but ensuing, related conflicts have since emerged. Meanwhile, the Black Sea has transformed into a lawless frontier, exploited by smugglers and criminals seeking passage to Europe.

Adding to the complexity is Russia's assertive push to re-establish its stronghold in the Mediterranean. A Ukrainian naval officer once asserted to the author, "Russia will never give up Crimea. Never." The unfolding events have indeed validated this sentiment.

In 2014, Russia launched an invasion of the Ukrainian peninsula of Crimea, effecting its annexation — a stark demonstration of Russia's ambition to dominate the Black Sea, often labeled as a "Russian lake."

Russia has also fortified its alliance with Syria's Bashar al-Assad regime, a move counter to the efforts of NATO allies seeking to end Assad's brutal reign.

Adding to these factors is the unsettling presence of the Islamic State, or ISIS, in the Mediterranean. The extremist group's attempts to trigger a religious war and proliferate violence across Europe underscore the urgency of heightened attention to this region.

A NATO task force, established to enhance surveillance and monitoring around the Mediterranean — particularly around Italy, a prime target on ISIS's agenda — could ideally counter these threats.

It is feasible for NATO, the United States, and anti-ISIS Arab nations to collaborate, gather intelligence, and work together to safeguard the Mediterranean.

The Caribbean's vibrant past is marred by struggle, urging a compassionate U.S. intervention.

The Caribbean's history is painted with vivid strokes of sixteenth-century pirates. Many of these swashbuckling renegades began as Protestant raiders, seeking to plunder the wealth of Catholic Spanish nobility.

One of the most celebrated pirates who roamed the Caribbean waters was Sir Francis Drake. He exited life as a man of wealth, having successfully amassed a trove of stolen Spanish riches.

Yet another renowned figure was the Welshman, Sir Henry Morgan. His unrelenting raids on Spanish trade ships led to his reward — the governorship of Jamaica from England. He transformed the island into a sanctuary for fellow pirates.

In recent times, however, the criminal tides in the Caribbean have been fuelled by drug trafficking. It's a crisis that calls for a shift in the United States' approach, from stringent enforcement to compassionate intervention.

Narcotics frequently traverse the Caribbean in their transit from South America to the United States. Historically, the U.S.'s aid to this region has been framed within its failing "war on drugs."

A more effective strategy would be for the United States to acknowledge its moral duty to support its Caribbean neighbors, particularly those grappling with corruption, violence, and natural disasters.

The persistence of a dictatorial rule in Cuba — a nation at America's doorstep — is a glaring example of the need for this shift. Presently, a "normalization" process is underway, evidenced by eased travel restrictions. The United States should seize this opportunity to guide Cuba towards becoming a democratic ally.

Crucial to this transformation is resolving the contentious issue of the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base.

Cuba's preference is to regain this territory. However, they might concede to the U.S. retaining the base if it was repurposed as a hub for legitimate humanitarian activities in the region — rather than serving as a detention center for suspected terrorists.

Additionally, the Caribbean is perennially battered by catastrophic hurricanes and earthquakes. There's an imperative need to prepare for future disasters and ensure robust recovery support for these islands.

Only when the Caribbean emerges healthier — with less poverty, violence, and corruption — can we hope to see a drop in criminal activities and drug-related offenses.

As global warming unlocks the Arctic's potential, the United States needs to strengthen its game plan.

Global warming is an undeniable reality, and nowhere is this more evident than the Arctic, where unprecedented melting is fundamentally altering the landscape.

For every single degree increase in the Earth's overall temperature, the North Pole heats up by five degrees. This situation, despite its impending dangers, paves the way for new opportunities.

One potential hazard is the release of catastrophic levels of methane into the atmosphere as the Arctic permafrost melts. Even as we strive to meet the targets set by the Paris Climate Agreement, we must also grapple with these real-world consequences.

As ice recedes, it ushers in new maritime avenues.

Russia, recognizing this transformative shift, is spearheading efforts to assert dominance in an increasingly accessible Arctic Ocean. The allure is powerful — copious reserves of oil, natural gas, and an array of valuable metals lie in wait in the Arctic, aside from the promising new fishing zones.

The Arctic territory is hotly contested, with Russia vying against Canada, Norway, and Denmark — which oversees Greenland. However, the United States, too, has a significant stake in this competition, thanks to the strategic foresight of William Seward who acquired Alaska in 1867.

Demarcating Arctic territories could become one of the most crucial geopolitical developments of our era. Thus, it's imperative for the United States to strategically position itself to avoid being sidelined.

Historically, the Arctic has been a peripheral concern for the United States. Although Barack Obama was the first U.S. President to visit the region, a clear and effective strategy for the Arctic remains elusive.

A proactive approach would involve expanding the U.S.'s fleet of icebreaker ships, currently limited to three, dwarfed by Russia's arsenal of over 30. There's also a need for diplomatic collaboration with NATO and Russia to establish cooperative partnerships and operational hubs.

By fostering a robust interdepartmental entity, the United States could soon articulate its distinct Arctic policy — one that champions environmental stewardship and prioritizes sustainability.

Modern maritime dilemmas: piracy, pollution, and environmental degradation.

Presently, the world's oceans are crisscrossed by between 50,000 to 60,000 commercial vessels, and approximately 5,000 military ships. That's a staggering four to six times the number that existed just three decades ago.

Despite our extraordinary strides in navigation and mapping technologies, we've made disappointingly little progress in curbing the criminal activity and environmental harm associated with maritime operations.

Piracy, for instance, remains a chilling reality, particularly in the Gulf of Guinea. Here, the Islamic terrorist outfit, Boko Haram, has been known to routinely ambush ships. A short-term deterrent could be to deploy visible security teams on vessels. However, for lasting solutions, we must tackle the root of the issue — on land.

Piracy is seldom a career of choice. Rather, it's often borne out of desperation for survival or used as a funding mechanism for terrorist activities. Thus, improving socioeconomic conditions and political stability in piracy-prone regions could lead to long-lasting and positive outcomes.

Equally pressing is the need to address maritime pollution and overfishing.

Public outcry often ensues following major incidents like the 2010 Deepwater Horizon disaster or the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill, where millions of gallons of oil gushed into the sea. While such events are indeed tragic, they aren't the main contributors to the issue. Large-scale spills are rare compared to the constant barrage of toxins dumped into the oceans by numerous industrial and agricultural entities daily. It's estimated that these firms release a staggering 500 million gallons' worth of poison into the oceans each year!

Furthermore, overfishing is depleting marine resources at an alarming rate — 90 percent of all fish stocks are exploited and overfished. In fact, overall fish populations are now just half of what they were in the 1970s. Such reckless exploitation is unsustainable.

Simply stated, these issues necessitate international maritime cooperation and an updated international treaty on maritime law. This should encompass comprehensive fishing regulations and designate larger swaths of protected waters.

Building a nation's maritime strength: why geography, policy, and alliances matter.

Several factors contribute to a nation's maritime prowess. Top of the list is geography — a generous coastline and unhindered access to open waters provide the perfect launchpad for a nation to make its mark at sea.

Next comes policy. A nation must align its political strategies with its maritime ambitions. This necessitates the creation of favorable trade policies and cordial foreign relations, as well as appropriate funding for shipbuilding and crew training.

A sterling example of such successful navigation of these factors is Great Britain, which harnessed all these components to cement its position as a formidable naval power.

However, in today's world, the United States must address specific contemporary issues to maintain its lead on the high seas.

Contrary to popular sentiment in some quarters, distancing from NATO would be a strategic misstep. Historically, every top-notch naval power has thrived on the strength of its allies and friendly ports scattered across the globe.

In addition to nurturing alliances, the United States must bolster its ship fleet to match competitors like Russia and China.

Currently, a mere two to three US ships patrol the Mediterranean — a figure that needs to triple to effectively counter threats like ISIS in the region.

Similarly, in the South China Sea, the US needs to deploy more submarines to ensure a balance of power. Concurrently, setting up a state-of-the-art Terminal High Altitude Area Defense — or THAAD system — could work synergistically with Japanese and South Korean allies to neutralize potential missile threats from North Korea.

Over in the Indian Ocean, the US should fortify its ties with India, New Zealand, and Australia through increased joint military training exercises.

Lastly, the Arctic Ocean presents its own set of challenges. Apart from enhancing the icebreaker ship fleet by at least four more, there's a pressing need to open up more ports and establish an emergency search-and-rescue base — after all, the Arctic's harsh conditions warrant such precautions.

Ultimately, it's incumbent upon a formidable naval force to foster global peace and prosperity.

Wrapping it up

This book's central takeaway:

Our oceans are magnificent chronicles of human ingenuity and resilience, but they also serve as a stark reminder of the challenges that lie ahead. Analyzing our past through the prism of maritime strength helps us pinpoint past errors and avoid their recurrence. Be it environmental threats like climate change and overfishing or geopolitical challenges such as terrorism and nuclear weaponry, our world is rife with potential crises that demand urgent and decisive responses.