The Gates of Europe - Book Summary

Exploring the crossroads of civilizations: the Ukrainian saga

Imagine a land where the threads of history weave a vibrant tapestry of varied cultural threads — a crossroads for diverse civilizations, armies, and empires. This is Ukraine, a nation whose narrative is as complex as it is fascinating. Forged by the hands of Vikings and reshaped by Mongols and Ottomans, Ukraine has seldom been the master of its destiny. Frequently squeezed between the ambitions of Poland, Austria, and Russia, independent statehood was but a distant dream for much of its history.

Yet, in the face of relentless domination, the spirit of the Ukrainian people never waned. Their cultural richness endured, blossoming even under the shadow of bans on their language by the mighty Russian Empire. This enduring saga is more than a regional chronicle — it's a pivotal chapter in Europe's vast historical ledger.

Join us as we embark on a journey through time — from ancient origins to the present day — to understand why nations have competed so fiercely over this gateway to Europe, and how Ukraine's relentless pursuit of its own identity is an essential stitch in the continent's intricate historical quilt.

A cradle of ancient commerce: the nomadic tribes and Greek influence in Ukraine

Venture back to the dawn of recorded European history where the mystique of Ukraine begins with tales from Greek annals. The Greeks were the first to pen the narrative of this region, and it was Herodotus, the father of history himself, who provided us the earliest writings about Ukraine's ancestral grounds.

In the age of Herodotus, around the fifth century BCE, the lands that would be christened Ukraine were already etching their place as a frontier — a boundary between Eastern nomads and Western civilization. This land, a mosaic of steppe, woodland, and mountain, lay like an inviting canvas north of the sapphire Black Sea. To the Greeks, this was the Pontic edge, where the domain of Greek culture ended and the territories of diverse "Barbarians" began.

Herodotus cast light on these so-called Barbarians, a term he applied broadly to anyone non-Greek. Before his writings, the region north of the Black Sea was shrouded in myth — a fabled realm whispered to be the haunt of Amazon warriors and the resting place of Achilles. As the Greeks looked to expand their knowledge and influence, they encountered storied tribes such as the fierce Cimmerians, displaced in vicious conflict by the formidable Scythian horsemen.

The legendary black soil of these steppes, a harbinger of Ukraine's future agricultural acclaim, nourished the early grains trade of the Scythians. When the Sarmatians arrived, a new chapter began — they were accustomed to the nomadic life, their roots tracing back to Iran, a woven tapestry of ethnically rich and diverse tribes.

By the turn of the first century CE, the expanding reach of Rome touched the shores of the Greek colonies settled in Ukraine. The Western world was now entwining with the region, drawn to two pivotal rivers — the Dnieper, or Dnipro as the Ukrainians would say, and the Don. The Dnieper, coursing past what would emerge as the illustrious city of Kyiv, was a vital artery for trade, while the Don neighbored the empowering Greek colony of the Bosporan Kingdom.

As noted by the Greek geographer Strabo, these rivers did more than channel commerce; they demarcated worlds. To the west of the Don, he proclaimed, lay the lands of Europe; to its east, the expanse of Asia. Thus Ukraine stood — tangible and emblematic — at the very intersection of continents.

From Slavic settlements to Kyivan Rus': the making of a European power

As the sixth century dawned, the Slavic peoples sought new pastures, arriving at the threshold of what is now Ukraine. Integral to the region's past, the early Slavs spread from the Balkans to the banks of the Dnieper, knitting themselves into the European narrative.

Sprouting from the fertile soils of the Volhynia and Pripyat valleys, the Slavs were characteristically robust, ruddy-cheeked, and neither fair nor dark — so the ancient scribes recounted. While their raids agitated the Byzantine Empire, they marked a changing era in the region's history.

Enter the Khazars in the seventh century — Turkic nomads shaping a tapestry of relative calm with their Byzantine pact. Settling in Kyiv, the Khazars welcomed the Slavs into their fold, even as Eastern Slavs began to architect fortified hamlets and til the black earth.

However, the Norse seafarers — the Vikings of the Rus' from the Scandinavian realms — had other designs as they sailed the Dnieper. Renowned as much for their trading ambitions as for their pillaging, the Rus' supplanted the Khazars, laying the foundation for a thriving future by forging an alliance with the Byzantines in 911.

The tenth century bore witness to the Rus' ascendancy. Kyiv, glorified as their citadel, and governed by a Rus' prices, birthed the Kyivan Rus' — an empire with a Viking elite but a Slav soul.

Among a lineage of rulers, two figures stand emblematic: Prince Volodymyr and his scion Yaroslav. Volodymyr's embracement of Christianity, influenced by Byzantium, and Yaroslav's fervent architectural and legal ventures, cast the Kyivan Rus' in a hallowed light. Yaroslav the Wise, as he was aptly christened, nourished the rise of Church Slavonic literacy with a bespoke alphabet for scriptural translations. By weaving his family into the royalty of Europe, he became revered as "the father-in-law of Europe."

Thus, under the watch of Volodymyr and Yaroslav, the Kyivan Rus' unfolded as a majestic European state, both culturally rich and politically relevant. But as they say, while it's one thing to achieve greatness, it's quite another to sustain it — a challenge that generations to come would face with varying degrees of fortune.

The Cossacks' bold quest for autonomy in a world of empires

In the wake of Yaroslav the Wise's death in 1054, the saga of the Kyivan Rus' teetered on the brink of discord. The initial reign of Yaroslav's sons soon gave way to a tumultuous period of strife, culminating in Prince Andrei Bogoliubsky's victory and consequential move of the capital to Vladimir, thus deepening the east-west divide along the Dnieper.

The Mongol invasion of the thirteenth century solidified this duality by splitting the territory into eastern and central-western domains. The conquests marked an era where independent Ukrainian rule seemed lost to the annals of history — that is, until the rise of the Cossacks.

Fast-forward to 1569 and the Union of Lubin births the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, casting a light on the stark contrast between the Catholic Polish nobility and the Orthodox Ukrainian serfs. As resentment brewed beneath the grim shadow of the Ottoman threat and rampant slavery, the stage was set for the emergence of indomitable spirits — the Cossacks.

These nomads from the north, hunters, and occasional bandits on the steppes, grew to become a beacon of resistance. Their valor in the face of foes like the Ottomans, Tatars, and the ascendant Muscovite Russian power made them indispensable to the Commonwealth. As their ranks swelled with Ukrainian peasants and town-dwellers, the Cossacks transitioned from outliers to official defenders of the borderlands in the 1570s.

Yet, with the rise of their numbers and might, the seeds of rebellion against the nobility were sown. Skipping ahead through a series of uprisings, we arrive at the monumental Cossack revolt of 1648, ignited by the Commonwealth's rebuff of their demands for noble status. The ensuing alliance with the Tatars devastated the Polish army, catapulting the Cossacks into a surprising victory and a swath of destruction across the land.

The aftermath of anarchy saw the Cossacks gain control of three eastern regions, dubbed the Hetmanate — the precursor of Ukraine as we know it. But even with this newfound autonomy, the path ahead was fraught. The Cossack's initial zeal met with the tricky tides of leadership and external influence. As the Hetmanate rose from the dust of medieval conflict, it embarked on a journey that would etch its identity into history's ledger.

The ebb and flow of sovereignty: Ukraine in the Age of Enlightenment

In an era celebrated for its philosophical awakenings, the Age of Reason proved bittersweet for the Ukrainian territory. The tenuous Cossack-led Hetmanate found itself ensnared between two burgeoning powers: the Polish Commonwealth and the Russian Tsardom. In 1667, diplomacy frayed, and the Dnieper became a dividing line, splitting Ukraine between Polish influence in the west and Russian ties in the east.

Amidst this, the Cossacks stood out as a beacon of democratic practice in an age that preferred the rigid structures of absolute monarchy. Leaders such as Russia's Catherine II and Prussia's Frederick II had little regard for a nation that indulged in the uncertainties of democratic leadership. The Cossack Hetmanate's days were numbered as Russia routinely suspended their elections and reinstated serfdom, casting the peasantry back into unpaid servitude.

The western banks of the Dnieper weren't immune to turmoil either, witnessing fresh revolts against its overlords, marked by violence against nobility, clergy, and Jewish communities. The chaos offered Russia an opportunity. Under the pretext of restoring order, Russian forces crossed the Dnieper and ousted the Ottomans from Crimea, culminating in the contentious annexation of the peninsula in 1783. The expansion continued, with Russia claiming the rich lands North of the Black Sea, which encompass modern Southern Ukraine.

As Russia's empire swelled with the addition of Belarus and Lithuania in 1772, a ripple effect disassembled the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. With one imperial stroke after another, the alliance was carved up by Russia, Austria, and Prussia, moving the border westward until the once mighty Poland vanished from the map by 1794. Catherine saw this expansion as a restoration — a reunion of the fragmented Kyivan Rus' under Russia's wing.

On imperial charts, a bold statement was made: lands once sundered were now reclaimed. While geopolitical maps were redrawn with victories, the deeper contest — that of preserving the unique spirit of Ukraine — waged on, nurtured in the hearts and hopes of its people.

A century of conflict and perseverance in Ukraine

The twentieth century drenched the Ukrainian lands in blood and turmoil. Few moments encapsulate the deep scars left on Europe like the shadow cast by Napoleon. Post-Napoleonic reordering at the Congress of Vienna breathed new life into the Kingdom of Poland in 1815. It was a delicate dance of sovereignty under Russia's watchful eye.

Napoleon's campaigns ignited a blaze of nationalism. Ukrainians found their voice through literature and song, crafting an ethnic identity steeped in their distinct language and culture amidst the rule of Russia, Poland, and Austria.

During the tumult of World War I, Ukrainians navigated the treacherous political landscape, toeing lines of allegiance. The war's end toppled the Romanovs and launched the Bolshevik Revolution, paving way for the Soviet Ukrainian state. Yet, the wars raged on, with Galicia at the heart of Ukrainian-Polish contention.

The geographical rift in Ukraine's identity persisted. Western Ukrainians rebelled against Polish influence while some easterners aligned with the Bolsheviks. In 1920, both Polish and Ukrainian forces halted Soviet expansion westward in what became known as the Miracle on the Vistula. However, the aftermath was bitter — a Polish-Russian treaty that further fragmented Ukraine between neighboring states. In 1922, Ukraine's fractured form was consumed by the Soviet Union.

Then, Joseph Stalin's rise in 1922 marked an era of repression for Ukrainian nationalism. His draconian collectivism decimated Ukraine's agrarian society. By the spring of 1932, famine gripped the land; nearly 4 million perished under the yoke of enforced collectivism, their crops and livestock seized by the Soviet state.

World War II saw Hitler's doctrine of Lebensraum unleash an unparalleled campaign of ethnic cleansing, obliterating 7 million souls in Ukraine, including a million Jews, in his quest for a wider Aryan "living space."

As the war waned, the Soviet Union reclaimed its lands and more, annexing territories from pre-war Czechoslovakia and Eastern Poland. Poland, in return, received a piece of Eastern Germany. Ukraine’s cities crumbled, its populace shattered. While political borders might have reflected a semblance of unity, Ukraine's spirit was once more subjected to the Soviet dominion — a subjugation that would anchor the nation until the cusp of another disaster.

The quest for European integration and the struggle against Russian dominion

The Soviet regime's grip eventually loosened, and it was the catastrophic Chernobyl disaster in 1986 that galvanized Ukraine's push for independence. The calamity highlighted the Ukrainian plight under Soviet control and set a precedent for self-determination, contributing to the Soviet Union's collapse. By the summer of 1990, Ukraine had embraced sovereignty, and by the end of 1991, the Soviet Union had disintegrated.

The following decade saw Ukraine grappling with economic recession and pervasive corruption. Yet, the nation's eyes were set firmly on joining the European fold. By signing a cooperation agreement with the EU in 1994 and aligning with NATO's Partnership for Peace, Ukraine signaled its commitment to European integration.

Scandals and political rivalries, however, marred progress. The infamous Kuchmagate in 2000 involving President Kuchma's corruption, the poisoning of pro-European candidate Viktor Yushchenko in 2004, and subsequent election fraud shook the nation's democratic aspirations. The Orange Revolution, with its call for justice, led to Yushchenko's eventual election victory.

The political turbulence, rivalry with Viktor Yanukovych, and strife with Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko hindered EU ambitions. In 2013, during a critical EU signing event, Yanukovych's refusal to sign sparked the Revolution of Dignity, inciting immense protests that resulted in his ouster and the installment of a provisional government.

Despite domestic aspirations, Russia's shadow loomed over Ukraine's European journey. President Vladimir Putin, mourning the Soviet Union's dissolution, sought to resurrect Soviet-era influence. He actively supported Yanukovych in his political campaigns and pressured Ukraine to join Russia's Eurasian Customs Union, counteracting the nation's EU trajectory.

Yanukovych's near alignment with the EU provoked severe trade reprisals from Russia, and in response to his eventual refusal to sign the EU treaty, Putin dangled a substantial loan. Yet, the ensuing Revolution of Dignity aligned Ukraine's factions against Russian intervention, particularly after revelations of Russian snipers targeting Kyiv's protestors.

In an assertive move, Putin annexed Crimea in 2014 after installing a pro-Russian government and orchestrating a referendum. His agenda now extends to Ukraine's eastern and southern regions, advocating a "federalization" that could further entangle Ukraine with Russia or potentially cleave it once more into a 'New Russia'.

The spectrum of linguistic and cultural identities paints a complex picture of loyalty within Ukraine. Polls suggest eastern and southern Ukrainians, despite speaking Russian, predominantly embrace their Ukrainian nationality.

Throughout its storied past — overcoming division, empire, and conquest — Ukraine's resilient quest for independence endures. As a state bridging Europe and Asia, its diverse tapestry of peoples share a common dream: to decide their own destiny.

The enduring spirit of Ukraine: a crossroads of history and culture

Perched strategically over the Black Sea, Ukraine stands as a historical bridge connecting the continents of Europe and Asia. From the times of Herodotus, who saw this expanse as the juncture between civilizations, Ukraine has been both a meeting place and a battleground for diverse cultures and ambitious empires.

This land has welcomed an array of nomadic tribes and settler cultures, each leaving an indelible mark on its social fabric. Yet, this same geographic boon has often seen Ukraine caught in the crosshairs of power struggles, carved up and claimed by mighty neighbors drawn to its fertile lands and strategic position.

Through the ebb and flow of conquest and liberation, the peoples of Ukraine have clung tenaciously to their cultural heritage and the hope for self-rule. Despite suffering under partitions and political upheaval, Ukraine's pursuit of sovereign statehood has been relentless, a testament to its unquenchable thirst for independence.

Ukraine's tale is one of resilience, a narrative that echoes with the spirit of a land and its people forever striving to unify and write their own destiny at the gates of Europe.