The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee - Book Summary

Revisiting Native American history beyond Wounded Knee

The narrative of Native American history is often shrouded in stereotypes and confined to tales of ancient battles and tragic conflicts. One such persistent myth is that their history ceased in 1890 after the devastating massacre at Wounded Knee Creek, where around 300 Lakota Indians were killed. This event has been misrepresented as the full stop to their rich and diverse stories — but this is far from the truth.

Indeed, contrary to popular belief, the history of Native Americans didn’t grind to a halt at the end of the 19th-century. Rather, the 20th century heralded a series of both daunting challenges and remarkable achievements as Native communities navigated the complexities of modern America. This summary explores the resilience and adaptability of Native American tribes over the past 129 years — a journey marked by sorrow, but also by significant victories and cultural revival.

Key themes that emerge include:

- The harsh realities of Native American boarding schools, where children were systematically stripped of their cultural identities in an effort to assimilate them into mainstream American society.

- The transformative role of casinos, which, for many tribes, have not only bolstered economic development but have also enabled reinvestment in community health, education, and cultural preservation.

- The empowering influence of social media, which has provided Native Americans a platform to share their stories, celebrate their heritage, and challenge the misconceptions about their communities.

Join us in uncovering the continuing story of Native Americans, a story that spans beyond tragedy to embrace a dynamic present and a hopeful future.

The enduring spirit beyond the 1890 Wounded Knee massacre

On a chilling day of December 20, 1890, the Miniconjou Lakota people, led by Chief Spotted Elk, undertook a perilous journey from South Dakota's Standing Rock Reservation to the safer confines of the Pine Ridge Reservation. This chapter of Native American history is anchored by turmoil, but even more so by the resilience of a people determined to safeguard their community amidst rising tensions.

The immediate catalyst for their departure was a conflict that erupted when police tried to detain the Hunkpapa Lakota Chief Sitting Bull, a staunch advocate of the Ghost Dance — a spiritual movement believed to hold the power to restore Indigenous lands and expel white settlers. The arrest turned violent, resulting in fatalities on both sides and heightening fears of further violent reprisals.

This tense atmosphere compelled Chief Spotted Elk to relocate his people, a decision that led them straight into the jaws of an even graver danger. Upon their arrival at Wounded Knee Creek, the US Seventh Cavalry intercepted them, leading to an even more tragic confrontation. The events that unfolded on that fateful December morning began with a search for weapons in the Lakota camp, spiraled into chaos, and culminated in a brutal massacre that claimed the lives of 150 Native Americans, including women and children.

This dark moment, however, did not mark the end of Native American history or spirit, as many have incorrectly claimed. The tragedy at Wounded Knee became a powerful symbol, one that has often been misrepresented as the narrative closure of Native American history. This misconception was further perpetuated by popular narratives like Dee Brown’s "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee," which framed the event as the tragic finale of the struggles between Native Americans and European settlers.

Contrary to the notion of a defeated and diminished people, the centuries following Wounded Knee saw continual acts of resilience, adaptation, and cultural resurgence among Native American communities. This overview challenges the misconception of an extinguished Native American culture post-1890, unveiling a saga of survival, resistance, and renewal that defies the simplistic narratives of history books. Through these insights, we see not an endpoint, but a painful yet pivotal chapter in the ongoing story of Native American perseverance and revival.

The dark legacy of Native American boarding schools

In 1824, the establishment of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) marked the beginning of more structured interactions between the United States government and Native American tribes. Although originally portrayed as a facilitative agency for managing treaties and compensation from the government to various tribes, the BIA's actions often betrayed a different agenda, particularly regarding the education of Native American children.

By the end of the 19th century, under the guise of a humanitarian effort to "save" Native American children from the supposed destitution of reservation life, the BIA initiated one of its most heinous policies: the creation of Native American boarding schools. Supported by a 1891 law, these institutions were designed not just to educate but to systematically strip away the cultural identity of Native American children.

Children, some as young as four, were forcibly taken from their families and placed in distant schools to assimilate into Euro-American culture. This brutal uprooting and re-education process aimed to erode their connections to their tribal heritage and instill Western values, effectively controlling future generations.

The template for these boarding schools was set by the Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, established in 1879. Carlisle’s regimen was harsh and militaristic. Native children were made to abandon their traditional attire for Western clothes and were forced to cut their hair short—a profoundly distressing act for Lakota children, for whom hair-cutting was a mourning ritual. Beyond the physical transformation, the erasure of cultural identity included banning the use of native languages, replacing them with English; children caught speaking their mother tongues faced punishment as severe as having their mouths washed out with soap.

Carlisle and similar institutions also imposed rigid gender norms alien to many Native cultures, where roles such as warriors or religious leaders were often held by women. However, in these schools, girls were restricted to learning domestic skills like sewing and cooking, confining them to stereotypical roles within a patriarchal framework.

Despite these oppressive measures, by the late 1930s, the compulsory boarding school programs began to wind down. Yet, a surprising outcome of this grim chapter was the emergence of a pan-Indian identity. As children from various tribes mingled, shared their experiences, and faced common adversities, they forged a unified sense of identity and community. This collective consciousness would later prove instrumental in their movements for civil rights and sovereign recognition in the centuries to come.

The devastating impact of US land allotment policies on Native American territories

At the turn of the 20th century, alongside the troubling establishment of Native American boarding schools, another governmental policy dramatically reshaped the lives and lands of Native Americans: the policy of allotment under the Dawes Act of 1887. This act marked a significant departure from the traditional collective ownership of land by Native tribes to an imposed system of individual land ownership.

Historically, Native American tribes had a communal approach to land — it wasn't owned by individuals but was held collectively by the tribe. However, under the misbelief that communal land ownership led to poverty and stunted economic growth on reservations, the federal government decided to enforce a shift towards individualism and privatization. The Dawes Act allowed for tribal lands to be surveyed and divided into individual allotments — 168 acres were allocated to each family head.

However, the implementation of this policy was fraught with corruption and mismanagement. The allotment process favored Native Americans who were amenable to federal policies, often allocating them better portions of land, while the most fertile and desirable lands were marked for white businessmen or settlers. This not only marginalized the native owners but also fractured the integrity of tribal lands.

In regions like Minnesota and Nebraska, prime reservation lands, particularly those adjacent to lakes or suitable for farming, ended up predominantly in the hands of non-Natives. In areas with poorer soil, such as South Dakota, the shift to a privatized, sedentary lifestyle was disastrous. Tribes that had survived through hunting and gathering found themselves confined to barren plots, unable to sustain their traditional ways of life.

As a result of these allotments, by the year 1934, Native American land ownership had plummeted by 66 percent, leading to an increase in poverty and a breakdown of tribal communities and structures. The social fabric of many Native tribes was irreparably damaged, with traditional ways of life severely disrupted.

Recognizing the failure and the adverse impacts of the allotment policy, the US government enacted the Indian Reorganization Act in 1934. This act ended further allotments and took steps to restore some degree of communal land ownership to tribes. Over 2 million acres were returned, but for many tribes, the cultural, social, and economic damage inflicted by decades of misguided policies had taken its toll, leaving enduring scars on Native American communities.

Valor and commitment: The significant role of Native Americans in world conflicts

Despite the challenges Native Americans faced domestically, including the controversial allotment policies of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, their patriotism remained undeterred during global crises. A concrete testament to this was their remarkable enlistment rates during World War I, where they emerged as the minority group with the highest rate of military service in the United States.

Native Americans' involvement in military service, however, extends beyond the 1917 U.S. entry into World War I. As early as 1914, Native Americans were already crossing borders to fight alongside Canadian forces after Canada, part of the British Commonwealth, entered the war. Tribes such as the Onondaga and Oneida from upstate New York even took a bold step by declaring war on Germany themselves. Their participation was characterized by notable service in various military capacities, from artillery units to cavalry.

A groundbreaking contribution came from the Choctaw Indians of Oklahoma, who served as the first "code talkers." Using their native language, they transmitted crucial military communications that German forces were unable to decipher, thus safeguarding vital tactical information.

One of the standout figures was Francis Pegahmagabow of the Ojibwe tribe, who enlisted in the Canadian Army. His skills as a scout and sniper were unparalleled, making him the most effective sniper of World War I with 378 confirmed kills.

The commitment of Native Americans continued into World War II, with participation rates that were equally impressive. On June 13, 1942, in a symbolic act of solidarity against the Axis Powers, a representative of the Iroquois Confederacy donned traditional attire and declared war on behalf of the confederacy at the steps of the U.S. Congress. He emphasized the disrespect for human life shown by the Axis as antithetical to the values upheld by the confederacy, which prides itself on being one of the world's oldest democracies.

By 1944, a significant 33 percent of all Native American adult males were actively involved in the conflict. However, despite their significant contributions and sacrifices, these veterans faced persistent racial discrimination upon their return. The stark contrast between their heroism abroad and the inequalities at home spurred many to advocate more vehemently for civil rights and equal treatment.

Thus, the involvement of Native Americans in global conflicts not only illustrates their bravery and skills but also highlights a complex interplay of patriotism intertwined with a struggle for recognition and equality.

Revolutionary voices: The pivotal role of the American Indian Movement

The decades following World War II saw waves of urban migration in the United States, profoundly affecting both the African American and Native American communities. By 1970, the challenges for Native Americans in urban areas were stark, with unemployment rates ten times the national average and 40 percent living in poverty. Moreover, they faced widespread police harassment and brutality, echoing the societal struggles of other marginalized groups.

In response, the American Indian Movement (AIM) emerged, drawing inspiration from the civil rights movement while adopting a more confrontational stance reminiscent of the Black Panthers. Established in Minneapolis by a group of young Indigenous activists, AIM initially focused on safeguarding Native communities from police excesses. They patrolled Native neighborhoods to monitor and document police actions, mirroring tactics used by the Black Panthers to combat police brutality in African American communities.

By 1972, AIM's ambitions had expanded well beyond neighborhood patrols. The movement had grown into a substantial network of activists spread across the United States. That year marked a significant undertaking: a caravan traversing various Native American reservations, growing in numbers and gathering media attention to spotlight the federal government's neglect of Native American rights. By the time the caravan reached Washington, D.C. on November 1, it had several hundred participants.

In a dramatic escalation on November 3, AIM activists took over the Bureau of Indian Affairs offices. During a press conference on the building steps, they threatened to arm themselves if meaningful societal changes were not made. Their demand for a meeting with top officials from President Nixon's administration was met with refusal.

The situation intensified on November 6 when a court order was issued for the activists' eviction and arrest. Faced with this threat, the AIM members engaged in vandalism as a form of protest, damaging the BIA offices significantly. President Nixon, wary of public backlash in an election year, opted for negotiation over force. He had a CIA agent initiate talks with AIM, which ultimately led to an agreement: the activists would vacate the building in exchange for $66,650 to assist with their journey back home.

Despite the retreat, AIM's activities in the 1970s continued to highlight and oppose the systemic mistreatment of Native Americans. Their bold actions and unwavering commitment drew widespread attention and played a critical role in advocating for Native American rights and justice.

How reservation casinos reshaped Native American communities

The introduction of reservation casinos has been nothing short of transformative for many Native American communities, leading some to refer to the era before tribal gaming as "BC"—before casinos. This significant shift began with an unlikely catalyst: a tax dispute in 1972 that set the stage for a legal and economic revolution.

The conflict ignited when Helen and Russell Bryan, members of the Chippewa tribe residing on the Leech Lake Reservation in Minnesota, received a $148 tax bill from Itasca County. The couple chose to fight the charge, arguing their case through various courts. Eventually, the matter reached the United States Supreme Court. The Court's landmark decision stated that states could not impose taxes on Native Americans living on reservations nor regulate their activities on these lands. This ruling inadvertently laid the legal groundwork for Indian gaming.

In 1979, seizing upon this newfound judicial support, Howard Tommie, the tribal chairman of the Seminoles in Florida, launched a high-stakes bingo parlor on their reservation. Contrary to state regulations, which permitted bingo operations for only two days a week with a maximum jackpot of $100, Tommie's establishment proposed to open six days a week with substantially higher prizes. This move, predictably, led to immediate legal challenges, but ultimately, the tribe prevailed in court, reinforcing the sovereign right to self-regulate gaming activities.

The success of the Seminole bingo parlor sparked a movement across numerous tribes, leading to the rapid construction of casinos and bingo halls on reservation lands. These establishments often offered prizes far exceeding state-imposed limits, underlining a broader exercise of tribal sovereignty.

This period of intense legal and economic activity culminated in the passage of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act in 1988. This critical piece of legislation not only affirmed the legality of reservation-based gaming but also established regulatory frameworks to oversee these operations. The Act stipulated that any gaming activities conducted on reservations must mirror the legal options available in the surrounding state and led to the creation of the National Indian Gaming Commission to enforce this compliance.

Following the implementation of this act, the growth of tribal gaming was exponential. By 2009, the total revenue from tribal gaming had ballooned to $26 billion, surpassing the combined incomes of Las Vegas and Atlantic City. However, the wealth generated by these enterprises has not been evenly distributed. Despite the booming casino revenues, the reduction in poverty rates in gaming areas between 1989 and 1995 was a modest two percent, highlighting the complex economic impacts of casino gambling within Native American communities.

Resilience and resurgence: The thriving spirit of today’s Native Americans

After enduring a century marked by forced assimilation, land dispossession, and economic disparity, the story of Native Americans today is one of resilience and resurgence across various fields in contemporary American society.

A shining example of this phenomenon is Sean Sherman, an Oglala Lakota chef based in Minneapolis. In 2014, he launched an innovative culinary venture known as The Sioux Chef. This business not only serves as a food-education and catering service, but it is also a celebration of indigenous cultures. Sherman focuses exclusively on ingredients that were available to Native Americans before European contact, such as sorrel, berries, squash, wild rice, and corn, deliberately eschewing European-introduced items like sugar, pork, and chicken.

Sherman's culinary creativity is evident in dishes like maple-bruléed duck in apple broth or a vibrant salad made entirely of foraged greens and tamarack blossoms. His dedication to reviving and promoting traditional Native American cuisine culminated in the publication of 'The Sioux Chef’s Indigenous Kitchen' in 2017, which included insights and recipes inspired by interviews with tribal elders.

Social media has also provided a powerful platform for other Native Americans to effect positive change and foster community wellness. Chelsey Luger, a freelance journalist of Ojibwe and Lakota descent, launched Well For Culture in 2015. This grassroots initiative promotes physical exercise and healthy eating within indigenous communities, targeting health issues such as obesity, diabetes, and alcoholism that disproportionately affect these populations. Well For Culture leverages social media effectively, using it to extend its reach and impact by sharing workout videos, nutritious recipes, and organizing fitness events in schools.

Similarly, Sarah Howes, whose heritage is Ojibwe and Creek, uses her platform to promote fitness and health. Besides running House of Howes, a contemporary art and lifestyle store, Howes is an enthusiastic long-distance runner. She uses social media, particularly Facebook groups, to organize and inspire running groups, advocating running as a path to maintain fitness and well-being.

The stories of Sean Sherman, Chelsey Luger, and Sarah Howes illustrate the dynamic ways in which Native Americans are not just surviving but thriving in modern America. They underscore a poignant truth: the historical narrative of Native Americans didn’t halt at Wounded Knee. Instead, it has continued to evolve, marked by enduring strength and a vibrant resurgence across generations.

Revisiting and redefining Native American history

The prevailing narrative that Native American history concluded with the tragedy at Wounded Knee is not only simplistic but also misleading. This perspective paints a picture of a vibrant culture doomed to decline and obscurity within reservation boundaries. In reality, the story of Native Americans did not culminate into silence after 1890; rather, it continued with both adversity and remarkable resilience.

Oppression, exploitation, and cultural erasure orchestrated by the U.S. government indeed marred the 20th century for many Native communities. However, these challenges represent only fragments of the broader Native American experience. Against considerable odds, Indigenous peoples have fiercely preserved their cultural heritage and have made notable advancements, debunking myths of stagnation and victimhood.

In more recent decades, Native Americans have not only preserved but actively rejuvenated their rich heritages and have forged paths of success in various fields — from culinary arts to media and activism. Far from the marginalized existence often depicted in mainstream narratives, Native Americans today are creating vibrant, thriving communities that reflect both the endurance of their ancestral legacies and their dynamic future.

Thus, the story told here is not one of an ending, but rather, it is about ongoing resilience, revival, and the reassertion of Native identity and sovereignty in contemporary America. This narrative challenges the outdated view of Native American histories and cultures, showcasing a community that is very much alive, continually evolving, and increasingly influential.