The Silk Roads - Book Summary

Embark on an expedition through the intricate history of the Silk Roads

Global history is a staggering endeavor to dive into, a rich tapestry teeming with complexities and details. When faced with such a behemoth task, historians often succumb to the temptation of boiling it down to a more palatable narration. Some of them craft an adventure-filled timeline revolving around influential leaders and monumental events. However, this approach trivializes the myriad of individuals and occurrences that culminate into what we know as history.

So, what are the crucial elements in the history of the world? Borrowing from a phrase made famous by Bill Clinton’s campaign team, it’s the economy that takes the center stage!

An intricate network of trading routes, conceived initially in ancient Mesopotamia, has continued to evolve and stretch in accordance to the shifts in global dynamics. This network reached its zenith in influence when it was christened as the "Silk Road" — the pathway Marco Polo followed on his iconic journey from Italy to China. This road, a conduit between the East and West, emerged as a unifying factor for the world, with people from disparate regions engaging in trade along its length. But the Silk Road wasn’t a one-off event in the annals of history; it has continually expanded and undergone numerous transformations. It seems more apt, then, to refer to it as the Silk Roads.

As outlined by Frankopan, world history can be narrated as the evolution of trade. He posits that controlling the Silk Roads equates to governing the world.

In this narrative, you'll uncover:

—the origin of the term ‘slave’;

—why the Black Death may not have been as catastrophic as it's often portrayed; and

—the commercial agreement that spelled doom for the Persian shahs.

The dawn of the Silk Roads: a crisscross of goods, cultures, and ideas

Several millennia ago, an expanse nestled between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers called Mesopotamia was the bustling heart of the Western civilization. Spanning a significant part of modern Iraq and portions of adjacent countries, this land saw the evolution of the first towns, cities, and the birth of expansive empires.

The most notable of these dominions was the Persian Empire. By the 6th century BCE, it stretched from the West's realms — Egypt and Greece, to the East's boundary — the Himalayas. This monumental empire thrived on the exchange of goods between its vibrant cities, facilitated by a comprehensive network of roads. This complex road system, connecting the Mediterranean to Asia's core, laid the groundwork for the Silk Roads — the legendary trade routes linking China to the West.

Under the Han Dynasty's rule (206 BCE-220 CE), China began to widen its frontiers, extending northwards and westwards to the Eurasian steppes — vast grasslands occupying a significant portion of present-day southern Russia. This expansion bridged Persia's trade routes to China's web of roads.

These steppes were untamed, an invitation for potential chaos. To maintain stability, the Chinese engaged in active trade with the nomadic tribes, dealing in commodities like rice, wine, and textiles. But one particular product outshined them all — silk.

Silk became an emblem of affluence, grandeur, and authority, and was occasionally even used as currency. As trade prospered, it became synonymous with luxury in the West. By the time the Roman Empire seized control of the Mediterranean in the first century BCE, silk had solidified its coveted status.

However, the Silk Roads were conduits not just for goods but also for the exchange of ideas. These routes fostered the dissemination of religious beliefs and philosophical ideologies. As local beliefs began to intertwine with entrenched systems, a complex fusion of diverse divinities emerged. The influence of the Greek pantheon made its way eastwards while Buddhist doctrines trickled northwards from India into China and the rest of Asia.

These interconnections also partially elucidate the swift propagation of Christianity — from its modest origins in Palestine, it quickly spread across the Mediterranean and through Asia.

The rise of the Muslim world and its reign over the Silk Roads ushers in an era of prosperity and intellectual growth

As the first millennium CE unfolded, the eastern peripheries of the Roman Empire, later the Byzantine Empire, were hotbeds of conflict. The Roman and Byzantine Empires were locked in fierce clashes with the Arsacid and Sasanian Persian dynasties, contending for supremacy in the Western world.

By the sixth century, Western Europe found itself thrust into a dark age marked by chaos and instability. In stark contrast, on the Arabian Peninsula, a burgeoning power bound by a firm religious identity began to take shape.

In 610 CE, Muhammad, a merchant from the Quraysh tribe near Mecca, was chosen to receive divine revelations. In an era where polytheism dominated the Arab world, he was singled out to spread the belief in a singular, omnipotent God — the same God worshipped by Abraham.

Muhammad's teachings resonated, and before long, the Arabs had coalesced around the tenets of Islam, thereby forging their identity. Islam's propagation was not solely reliant on peaceful teachings — military victories gained by Muhammad and his followers also played a part, as they managed to persuade the southern Arabian tribes to embrace this new faith.

These triumphant conquests had a significant consequence — the Silk Roads were now under Muslim influence.

Around 700 CE, the balance of power began shifting. The Arabs managed to conquer and consolidate the economic powerhouses of the erstwhile Byzantine and Persian empires. The countdown to the eventual collapse of these once-mighty empires had begun.

The Muslims now had command over an extensive network of oasis towns, ports, roads, and cities, effectively linking the Arab domain with China. This control brought a surge of goods into the region, escalating its wealth and prosperity.

Thus, a new era of prosperity marked by thriving trade, flourishing arts, and advancements in science was inaugurated. Luxurious commodities like Chinese porcelain found their way into the region, accompanied by academic manuscripts and treaties. The Muslim world, with its high regard for education, was flooded with knowledge spanning mathematics, geography, philosophy, and science. Meanwhile, Europe started retreating into an intellectual wilderness as the Christian Church worked to stifle scientific study and inquiry.

The rise of Europe through the slave trade and the capture of Jerusalem fuels a transformation in power dynamics

As the Muslim empire soared to unprecedented heights, the demand for slaves also escalated. Intriguingly, it was the Vikings who primarily transported these slaves from Eastern Europe to the Muslim world. This group was popularly known as the Slavs, the word from which the term "slave" originates.

The ripple effects of this burgeoning slave trade were extensive. Wealth started flowing into Europe, leading to the import of coveted luxury items, spices, and medicinal resources among others.

This influx of Eastern goods into Europe sparked curiosity and ignited a desire in Europeans to explore the East — the birthplace of Jesus Christ and the holy city of Jerusalem, with its rich religious heritage. The Christian knights, armed and ready for combat, embarked on the First Crusade, successfully claiming Jerusalem on July 15, 1099.

With this conquest, the tides of power began to shift, marking the onset of an era of Western European dominance. For four centuries, Jerusalem was under Muslim control, but now the reins had changed hands.

Interestingly, the resistance to the Christian conquerors was localized and not widespread. Consequently, the Crusades can be perceived more as a leverage point that propelled Europeans to amass greater wealth and power, rather than being confined to religious conflict — a popular misinterpretation in contemporary times.

With Jerusalem under Christian rule, the scales of trade tipped once again. The European interests weren't only reinforced by Jerusalem — trade relations with Constantinople and Alexandria also played a pivotal role in ameliorating Europe's socioeconomic landscape in the 12th century.

Specifically, the Italian city-states of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice amassed riches as they became vital links in a vast trade network extending to the Far East.

From the relentless sweep of the Mongols to the ravages of disease, the world undergoes major upheaval

In the late 11th century, the Mongols were just another tribe dwelling in the steppes north of China.

Despite being generally scorned and perceived as a disorderly mob, the Mongols were, in fact, meticulous strategists and planners. These attributes facilitated their conquest of vast territories across Asia and Europe by the end of the 13th century, culminating in the creation of the world's largest contiguous empire.

Establishing their rule over the Mongolian steppes as early as 1206, the Mongols subjugated other tribes, resorting to the threat or use of violence. By 1211, they had breached China's defenses, seizing the Jin dynasty's capital, Zhongdu. Subsequently, in the 1230s, they continued their westward expansion through Central Asia, pillaging Baghdad in 1258 and advancing into Eastern Europe a year later.

By the end of the 13th century, the vast Mongol Empire spanned from the steppes to Northern India, and from the Pacific to the Black Sea and the Persian Gulf.

With this territorial domination came control over the Silk Roads and other trading corridors. Consequently, the Mongols' cultural influence permeated Europe, evident in trends such as Mongol hats and dark-blue Tatar cloth.

However, the Mongols' reign had far-reaching ramifications beyond fashion — they brought with them a deadly disease.

This disease was none other than the Black Death, a devastating plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. By the mid-14th century, the plague had reduced much of the known world to its knees. This apocalypse spread along the trade routes — it originated from the Asian steppes, the Mongols' homeland, before reaching Europe, Iran, the Middle East, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula.

The mortal toll of the plague was staggering — Venice, for instance, lost nearly three-quarters of its population during a plague outbreak in 1347. Europe alone lost over one-third of its populace!

It seemed impossible for Europe to recover from such devastation. Yet, in a rather paradoxical twist, the conditions precipitated by the plague inadvertently set the stage for a new rise of Europe.

Global expeditions spearheaded by Europe linked the continents, but this new connectivity also birthed tremendous anguish

Despite the horrifying toll of the Black Death, the anticipated end of the world did not transpire.

Post-plague Europe emerged as a vastly different landscape. While the populace had drastically diminished, this decimation served to bolster the peasantry and undermine the landed elite.

With wealth becoming more evenly dispersed and interest rates plummeting, economic stimulation was revitalized and technological advancements were spurred, notably in the realms of military and maritime innovation. By the 15th century, expeditions set forth to explore new oceanic territories.

Portugal and Spain became the pivotal launch points for numerous such ventures. Before long, European maritime expeditions to Africa, the Americas, and Asia started shrinking the world. The Portuguese led the way, venturing into the Eastern Atlantic and along the West African coast, uncovering archipelagos such as the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Azores.

Of renowned significance, Columbus embarked in 1492 under the Spanish banner in pursuit of a fresh trade route to India, only to stumble upon the Americas instead. Then, in 1497, the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama achieved what Columbus could not. In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan set sail, becoming the first to circumnavigate the globe.

Consequent to these endeavors, fresh trade routes sprang up, placing Europe at the epicenter. Europe was now poised to reap the bounty from American gold and silver mines, import Chinese porcelain and silks, and crucially, bring in spices like pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, and frankincense from Asia.

But this economic renaissance in Europe bore a grim flip side. The rest of the world was plunged into distress.

In Mesoamerica, the formidable Aztec Empire fell, its people massacred by the Spanish conquistadors. The indigenous populations of the Americas weren't merely destroyed by weapons — European explorers and armies introduced diseases, such as smallpox and measles, against which the natives had no immunity.

Further, the Europeans introduced one of the era's most deplorable facets: the global slave trade. To fuel economic growth on American plantations, Africans were ferried across the Atlantic and sold into a life of servitude.

The establishment of new trade corridors gave rise to emergent empires, as various European forces took turns dominating the global scene

The adventurous voyages of European explorers had successfully positioned Europe as the world's nucleus.

By the dawn of the 16th century, Portugal and Spain had ascended to become the most formidable powers in Europe. But their supremacy was not to last. The stage was being set for Northern Europe's emergence.

England had not been simply observing as its southern counterparts ventured forth into unknown territories. The English, too, had commissioned expeditions to form new trade networks. By the late 16th century, England had established a series of companies, each granted a trade monopoly in their designated region. Among these, the Levant Company, the Turkey Company, and the East India Company would go on to become prosperous commercial extensions of England.

The Dutch were hot on their heels, forming their own companies, notably the East Indies Company and the West Indies Company. In doing so, the Dutch were virtually inventing the concept of the modern corporation, along with the idea of pooling capital and sharing risks among a corporation's numerous investors.

However, no reign lasts forever. By the early 19th century, Russia, brimming with ambition, began to rise. A looming war was in the air.

Russia commenced the expansion of its territories, launching assaults on the Ottoman Empire, located in present-day Turkey. By the 1820s, it had made strides in the Caucasus and managed to expel the Persian army.

The late 19th century saw Russia spreading into Central Asia, posing a palpable threat to Britain. Russia's borders were now alarmingly close to British-held India.

The British needed a well-devised plan. The idea was to maintain cordial relations with Russia and subtly direct its attention towards its western border shared with Prussia, the precursor to modern Germany. This arrangement was quite appealing to the rising French Republic as well. To ensure a stable equilibrium of power, a tripartite alliance between Russia, Britain, and France was formed.

This alliance, however, was not particularly promising for the nascent German state, which harbored its own imperial aspirations but found itself encircled by allied enemy powers. A military confrontation between these nations seemed all but unavoidable. Thus, the stage was set for the outbreak of World War I in 1914.

As the 20th century dawned, Western powers set their sights on the rich oil reserves of Persia

It was well-known that Persia was sitting atop substantial oil reserves, but prior to the 20th century, this "black gold" held little interest for many. That changed when a Briton, William Knox D’Arcy, managed to convince the Persian Shah to allow access to these reserves.

In 1901, the Persian Shah, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, signed a pact known as the Knox D’Arcy Concession. This gave Knox D’Arcy exclusive rights to tap into Persia’s natural gas and petroleum for 60 years. In return, the Shah received ₤20,000 in cash, another ₤20,000 in shares of the newly formed company, and an annual 16 percent of its profits.

But this was a risky gamble by the Shah, and it didn't pay off. The British profited far more than he did. In fact, this concession would go down as one of the most significant documents of the 20th century. The Shah's decision sowed the seeds for the downfall of the Persian monarchy almost eight decades later.

As the global reliance on oil for fuelling ships increased, the demand for oil surged. Knox D’Arcy’s company rapidly grew into a multibillion-dollar enterprise. By 1914, the British government had procured a 51 percent stake in the company, which would eventually evolve into the British Petroleum Company (BP) in the coming decades.

This development didn't sit well with the Shah's subjects. They saw the British amassing wealth by exploiting Persia's natural resources while they received next to nothing in return.

With anti-British sentiment rising, there was a clear need for action to curb British dominance. Thus, in the 1920s, the American oil company Standard Oil was granted a fifty-year concession in northern Persia, a region beyond the reach of the Knox D’Arcy Concession, much to the British's dismay.

The Persians hoped that American investment would counterbalance the British hegemony in the area. However, this strategy did not prove successful. As one Persian envoy quipped, the Americans turned out to be "more British than the British.”

For a region that had been a major trade hub along the Silk Roads for thousands of years, this situation was deeply offensive. Oil pipelines funneled wealth to the West, while the Persians received meagre compensation in return. They felt betrayed by their Shah.

Hitler's quest to conquer the fertile lands of southern Russia and the resulting grain deficit may have fueled the Holocaust

In August 1939, the unlikely duo of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union came together to sign a nonaggression treaty. However, it concealed a secret pact: Hitler and Stalin had agreed to carve up Poland between themselves.

Accordingly, on September 1, 1939, the German Wehrmacht launched an invasion of its eastern neighbor. Surprisingly, the Soviet Union did not retaliate.

Yet Hitler harbored a clandestine ambition. He sought access to the Silk Roads in the southeast of Europe. This strategic acquisition would bring Nazi Germany much-needed resources, such as wheat and oil—key ingredients for waging a global war. But Stalin was completely oblivious to Hitler's covert intentions, thereby completely misunderstanding the scenario.

Everyone knew that a pact between these ideological foes would not last. Still, Stalin was taken aback when Germany made its move sooner than expected.

Hitler sent his troops marching toward the Soviet Union, with his forces crossing the border in the early hours of June 22, 1941.

To many, the timing seemed strange. Germany had already attacked and occupied France to the west, so it seemed reckless to open another front to the east.

But Hitler’s objective was clear. By conquering the plush wheatfields of southern Russia and Ukraine, Hitler planned to sustain the Reich's populace and soldiers. Meanwhile, the Soviets—deprived of their grain—would be left to starve.

Initially, the German advance seemed unstoppable. But the harsh Russian winter and overextended supply chains eventually took their toll, halting the Germans in their tracks. Adding to their woes, the yield from Russian and Ukrainian farmlands was disappointing.

This scarcity was exploited by the Nazis to fuel their anti-Semitic agenda further. Adolf Eichmann, the mastermind behind the Final Solution, declared that it was not possible to feed all the Jews. Of course, the Nazis were already herding Jews into camps, preparing for mass extermination. The author posits that the shortfall in expected grain may have expedited the horrors of the Holocaust.

Following the Second World War, the United States sought to widen its reach in Western Asia

The turmoil of the Second World War reached its conclusion in 1945, reimaging the world's power architecture. Now, two titans stood toe-to-toe: the Soviet Union and the United States.

Before long, their gaze turned to the region where the illustrious history of the Silk Roads first began: Iran, once known as Persia. The 1950s marked the dawn of American dominance in this strategic country.

As the 1950 decade unfolded, the clamor for nationalizing Iran's entire oil industry for the benefit of its people grew unignorable. In 1951, newly elected Prime Minister Mossadegh pledged to kickstart the nationalization process, a move the United States knew would undercut their influence and access to pivotal resources. In response, they swung into action swiftly and, in 1953, the CIA orchestrated a coup to oust Mossadegh.

In the ensuing power vacuum, the United States arranged for American oil companies to seize control of Iranian oil wells. The objective was to stave off any potential Soviet entrenchment in this influential oil-rich region. The grand strategy was to create a chain of states stretching from the Mediterranean to the Himalayas, each ruled by pro-American governments that could provide economic and military backing.

However, the American maneuver fell short and incurred a hefty price. The Shah was ousted from power in the Iranian Revolution of 1979. Anti-American sentiment soared, culminating in militant Iranian students storming the American embassy in Tehran and detaining roughly 60 diplomatic staff as hostages. Their year-long captivity ended with the disintegration of American sway in the region.

Another American misstep came during the late 1970s when the US offered substantial backing to Islamic fundamentalists resisting the Soviets in Afghanistan, even furnishing them with arms.

These fundamentalists would turn hostile toward the United States after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, eventually attacking American soil in the ‘9/11’ terrorist attacks in 2001.

Although currently chaotic, the region that gifted us the Silk Roads is rebounding as a significant power

Looking at the turbulent ventures of the United States and European powers, we see the enduring relevance of eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Western and Central Asia. The region that birthed the legendary Silk Roads centuries ago is still brimming with potential and resilience. Its crucial position bridging the East and West is indisputable. Yet, predicting the specifics of its future trajectory is a challenging endeavor.

The nation of Ukraine is a prime example. Pulled apart by different national ideologies, the country is trapped in a tug of war between the East and West. Syria is another case, its gruesome civil war driving a wedge between conservatives and liberals, and government forces against insurgents. Then, the geopolitical turbulence in the Caucasus regions, as exemplified by Chechnya and Georgia, presents a picture of instability.

However, these events could merely represent transitional struggles in a region poised for resurgence. With the world’s metaphorical fulcrum shifting back to where it resided for thousands of years, it becomes clear.

The primary reason for this pivot back is the region's abundant natural resources. Be it the crude oil deposits beneath the Caspian Sea, the uranium in Donbas, Turkmenistan's expansive natural gas reserves, or Kazakhstan's rare earth metals.

Urban growth is rampant in these regions, with cities seeing an influx of skyscrapers transforming their skylines. Simultaneously, the rise of luxury resorts, high-end hotels, and modern airports signifies rapid development.

Moreover, the establishment of new transport connections fosters increased trade. The Northern Distribution Network, a tapestry of transit routes spanning Russia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, is a vivid example. Add to that the transcontinental railway lines connecting Chinese markets with distribution hubs in Germany.

Oil pipelines, too, snake their way from the Middle East to European shores.

The resurgence is not confined to the economic realm. Centers of art and academia are springing to life across the Persian Gulf. The Guggenheim Museum in Abu Dhabi, the Baku Museum of Modern Art in Azerbaijan, and even university campuses run by Ivy League institutions like Yale and Columbia denote the region's cultural rise.

Despite lingering perceptions amongst western minds about the ‘otherness’ and volatility of the region, it's once again transforming into a crucible of trade and ideas. The resurgence of China's influence over the Silk Roads region seems inevitable, potentially curbing Western power. Already financing numerous infrastructure projects in the area, China is helping lay the groundwork for trade routes that could stretch even beyond the Silk Roads. All signs point to a renaissance of the lands that once hosted the Silk Roads.

Essential takeaways

The inception of the Silk Roads can be traced back to the interlacing of trade pathways in Persia and China, thereby melding East with West. Throughout history, the Silk Roads' geographical scope and specific routes may have evolved as civilizations transformed the landscape, but their foundational essence remained unaltered. Goods and ideas continuously traversed these routes, stimulating an enduring desire to take control of these lucrative arteries. This longing has influenced the historical trajectory and the current state of the world, molding it as we see it today.